Which types of social media use are most linked to anxiety or depression in teens and young adults?

In our research, we reviewed more than 80 studies and identified a few social media behaviors that consistently pose higher risk. The strongest evidence points to social comparison; for example, passively scrolling, liking others’ posts, obsessing over likes, and comparing oneself to idealized, unrealistic portrayals. Over time, excessive feedback‑seeking can erode teens’ self‑esteem and sense of self‑worth.

Nighttime use is another major concern for two reasons: teens often feel less accountable late at night and may make riskier online decisions, and social media use that disrupts sleep can indirectly harm mental health. This is especially troubling given national data showing that 15–30% of teens ages 13–17 use social media “almost constantly,” and 93% report losing sleep by staying up past their bedtime to use it.

For many other aspects of social media use, such as network size or active posting versus passive scrolling, we find that the evidence is mixed or inconclusive. More high‑quality research is needed to pinpoint which platform features are most harmful and how they can be improved or removed.

Beyond screen time, what parts of the social media environment matter most for mental health?

Adolescence is a critical period for identity development and peer connection. Social media fundamentally alters how teen relationships function, intensifying social comparison and feedback‑seeking during a stage of life when these processes are already heightened.

Online interactions are often shallow and inconsistent compared with in‑person experiences, where teens learn to communicate, problem‑solve, and interact in more authentic, unfiltered ways. These offline experiences are essential for building self‑esteem, self‑efficacy, and long‑term mental health.

Algorithms play a major role in shaping risk. Platforms are designed to maximize engagement because more time online means more profit. As a result, algorithms prioritize emotionally charged content such as anger, fear, sadness, or excitement, which can overwhelm a developing brain that may struggle to distinguish what is authentic from what is manipulated. Sustained exposure may contribute to anxiety, depression, and antisocial behaviors.

These effects are amplified by design features like infinite scrolling, autoplay, and short‑form video, which deliver a constant stream of content. Ironically, this often crowds out posts from real‑life peers. Meta’s own research has shown that only about 7% of the content users see comes from people they actually know.

Together, these dynamics contribute to what is often described as social media addiction; use that is difficult to control and disrupts daily life. This severe pattern of use carries clear mental health risks.

What personal or community factors make some young people more vulnerable—or more resilient?

Age is one of the strongest predictors of risk. Younger teens are still developing executive function and self‑control, making it harder for them to navigate social media safely without support. These skills are more developed by ages 17 and 18, though brain development continues into the mid‑20s. I generally recommend restricted or minimal social media use for anyone under 16.

Gender also appears to matter. Girls tend to experience greater negative effects, likely due to higher exposure to cyberbullying and greater engagement with appearance‑focused content, social comparison, and feedback‑seeking than boys. That said, we need more research on a broader range of outcomes, including those that disproportionately affect boys. We also need more research to understand the impact for youth with non-binary gender identities, who may experience unique risks and benefits from social media use.

On the protective side, teens with strong in‑person relationships, healthy sleep habits, and parents who communicate openly about social media tend to be more resilient. My colleagues and I have developed a practical guide for parents and educators to help set boundaries and support safe, healthy use.

Based on your findings, what steps could improve young people’s online experiences and mental well‑being?

Families can start with clear plans for healthy social media use, including keeping phones out of bedrooms. Schools should integrate social media literacy into their curricula to help students critically evaluate what they see online and develop healthier habits. Pairing this with sleep education is especially effective because teens who understand how nighttime scrolling harms mental health are more likely to change their behavior.

Policy changes also show promise. Over the past two years, more than half of U.S. states, including Iowa, have passed laws restricting or banning phones in schools. While implementation varies, the goal is to reduce distractions and improve attention, learning, socialization, mood, and behavior. Researchers are just beginning to evaluate which approaches work best.

A recent and significant legal development involved Meta and YouTube, which were found liable in a lawsuit brought by a California teenager. Unlike past cases that focused on harmful content, this case argued that the product design itself caused harm, similar to litigation against tobacco or hazardous chemical manufacturers. This decision may spur additional lawsuits and encourage meaningful platform reforms.

Internationally, countries such as Australia and Indonesia have gone further, restricting social media accounts for users under 16 and enforcing compliance through national oversight bodies. In Australia, companies face substantial fines for violations.

Together, these efforts reinforce that we can shape safer social media environments through education, regulation, and oversight. While questions remain, we already know enough to take action to protect young people’s mental health today.